1.  Invention, The Child Of Necessity: Getting Papers Started

Getting a paper started is tough for every writer; it's especially hard for a student writer who doesn't get to pick their own subjects: first they must learn about a broad subject area; then, they must find some topic within that broad area to write about, always with limited space and time. And if all this isn't enough, writers also have to develop their own ideas about their topic and explain those ideas with concrete support. Does this sound familiar? Does it sound impossible? There are many ways to go about "inventing" a short paper; what follows is one very practical process that gets results:

1.    Locate a subject: Make sure you know what the subject is (through research?); you may have to learn something about it (i.e., do your home work). Inventing a paper on a subject about which you know nothing is tough.

2.    Focus on a narrow topic: Use the invention techniques described below to figure out what specific topics are within your subject area; once you have some specific options, commit to a good one. Don't waffle.

3.    Come up with a controlling idea: No one can do this for you! Use invention techniques to help you see what you think about your topic. Again, after you have some options, pick an idea and stick to it. This controlling idea will become your thesis statement.

4.    Generate concrete examples that you can use to develop your paper: Concrete examples and reasoning are the heart of a paper. With your topic and controlling idea in mind, use invention techniques strenuously; push your thoughts beyond generalizations to concrete examples. The clause, "I hate potatoes," is general; "the texture, color, and flavor of potatoes does nothing for me," is a more concrete statement.

2.  Devising your Thesis

1. Decide what you are writing about:

A clear, concise thesis statement does more than outline the subject in question; it makes the reader aware of the writer's stand on the subject in question, connecting a subject with a controlling idea.

2. Think about all the elements your paper will deal with:

A thesis generally consists of a subject that contains within itself a number of smaller facts; the topic sentence of each paragraph that makes up the body of the paper should refer (in some clear way) back to the ideas contained within the thesis statement in order to keep the paper from digressing.

3. Think about the purpose and tone of your paper:

A thesis statement should contain the main point of the paper and suggest to the reader a direction that the paper will take in exploring, proving, or disproving that main point.

4. State your main point in a sentence or two:

A good writer can assert the main idea of a short, coherent essay briefly. Instead of rambling, be as straightforward as possible.

5. Revise your thesis as you develop your paper:

A final version of a thesis statement will only be available after a draft of the paper is finished.  The focus of the paper may change and evolve over the period it is written in; necessarily, the thesis statement should be revised to reflect the alterations in the paper.

REMEMBER: Few writers finish a paper writing about the exact topic they begin with. While you write a paper, your main point may change. As you're finishing, make sure your thesis statement has changed along with the subject and controlling ideas of your paper.

 

3.  Organizing your Paper

When writers talk about organization, they are talking about arranging thoughts systematically in an orderly, functional way in order to create a harmonious or united action. Your paper should be arranged so that your purpose is clear, your thesis logically stated and developed, and your final conclusion plainly drawn from the preceding material. Of course, different kinds of papers call for different organizations. A paper arguing a political position will be organizationally different from a paper explaining the migratory patterns of African swallows. Two kinds of papers that you will encounter often are the informative paper and the argumentative paper. For this assignment, you will write an argumentative paper.

Type 1:  The Informative paper

The informative paper basically states "This is the way things are. This is how they work. This is how to use them." This kind of paper will often be organized in one of the following ways:

Codified order: Present information and ideas in a sequential or other logical order A potato can be fried, baked, or boiled.

Definition: Arrange the information around a definition.
Good potatoes are the product of planning, preparation, and presentation.

Classification: Arrange examples in varieties
Two types of potatoes are sweet and red.

Comparison: Demonstrate similarities between two or more people or things.
Julienned and sliced potatoes are alike in . . .

Contrast: Demonstrate differences between two or more people or things
Julienned and sliced potatoes differ in . . .

Type 2:  The Argumentative (Persuasive) Paper

The argumentative paper states a premise and then gives support for that premise. This kind of paper will often be organized in one of the following ways:

Induction: Infer a general principle from a group of examples
Potatoes with the skin on are more flavorful than skinned potatoes.

Deduction: Infer a group of effects given a general principle (i.e. Cause/Effect).
Leaving the skin on the potatoes produces more flavorful results.

Sign: Establish that one thing indicates the presence or action of another
Over-seasoned potatoes is a sign of bad potatoes or an incompetent cook.

Analogy: Compare one topic to another seemingly unrelated topic to illuminate a relationship

In the same way that a good blueprint is the foundation of success in building a bridge, thorough planning is the foundation of a successful potato torte.

4.  Avoiding the Most Common Mistake:  A Lack of Focus

One of the most common problems of organization is including extraneous material. As you are composing the body of your paper--perhaps following the structures illustrated above--make sure that every paragraph you write puts forward the idea of thesis. If a paragraph does not clearly support or further the argument of the thesis, it does not belong in the paper. Following this rule will prevent you from discussing unrelated material. Remember, always keep the thesis in mind:

6.      Crafting Paragraphs

A paragraph in a research paper should include:

Thesis statement People in the past spent a great deal of effort protecting themselves from evil potatoes.
Topic sentence for a typical paragraph Anti-evil-potato devices were understandably numerous since every bad thing that happened could be blamed on the power of an evil potato.
Subject of paragraph Anti-evil-potato devices
Relation to controlling idea People's fear of evil potatoes forced them to devise equipment to keep evil potatoes away.

To write a good one, you should:

Decide what the paragraph will deal with:
Since each paragraph begins with a specific purpose (to explore a distinct sub-topic of the thesis), each topic sentence should be specific and clear. The organizational pattern of your paper (based mainly upon the type of paper you are writing) will help you decide what issues you should deal with and in what order to deal with them.

Think about all the issues that this paragraph should deal with:
Each sentence within a specific paragraph must support the idea posited by the topic sentence. As you reflect on a particular paragraph, ask yourself, "What are the issues involved in this topic? How does this relate to my overall controlling idea? Do my sentences adequately explore this topic sentence?"

Think about the purpose and tone of your paragraph:
Each paragraph must provide a thorough analysis of its topic. If a paragraph provides information that is not directly related to the thesis, revise or eliminate the extraneous information. Ask yourself whether each paragraph contributes to the focus and tone of the entire paper and follows the map laid out in your thesis.

Be efficient with your sentence development in your paragraph:
A paragraph is not a paper. Each paragraph represents a separate step towards a general conclusion about your topic. To that end, each paragraph should develop its idea with as many (or as few) sentences as necessary to make its point clear. Many of you have heard that a paragraph can be considered a "miniature essay" in which there is an introduction (topic sentence), some supportive materials (the sentences of the paragraph), and a conclusion (a concluding sentence). This structure works, but keep in mind that regardless of sentence length or number your main goal is efficiently and completely examining individual ideas.

Revise your paragraph organization as you develop your paper:
It may be that your thesis will change as you develop your paper; consequently, topic sentences for your paragraphs must change with it. Don't hesitate to discard vague or tangential ideas in favor of more direct ones. Also, make sure each paragraph moves your paper toward its goal, whether it be informative or persuasive. Finally, make sure each paragraph is part of a logical sequence of ideas that are linked by transitions.

7.  Revising your Research Paper

Revision tends to be divided into two categories, changes that alter the meaning of a text and changes that leave meaning intact. Think of how many changes you can make to a piece of writing.

Since there are so many things a writer can do to a text and, often, so little time, it makes sense to make those changes that will make the meaning of your writing more clear to a reader. There are, of course, lots of ways to figure out how to revise a particular piece of writing; every writer is different. What follows is a method that works, either on a whole paper or on a paragraph.

1.    Finish a draft or at least part of a draft before you consider revising--otherwise you may never get anything finished.

2.    Reread your draft and decide what issues you need to focus on. Always start with the most serious meaning-blocking issues and work down; always make notes on the draft that you read, and consider getting another reader's opinion--maybe even a Writing Center tutor's opinion.

3.    Focus on a single issue.

4.    Maintaining your focus, talk or write through potential solutions to places where communication breaks down; often problems and solutions are easier to find with the help of an objective reader (e.g., another writer, a Writing Center tutor, or your instructor).

5.    Sketch in solutions and write them up.

6.   Repeat steps 1 through 5 as often as necessary.

Revision Checklist

Subject

·      thesis

·      unified information

·      tone

Shape

·      organizational pattern

·      transitional words

·      introduction & conclusion

·      coherent information

Paragraphs

·      topic sentences

·      examples

·      warrants

·      transitional words

Sentences

·      complete sentences

·      sentence variety

·      transitional words

Format

·      special punctuation

·      page setup

·      documentation